Frederick jackson turner frontier map

Argument by historian Frederick Pol Turner

The Frontier Thesis, further known as Turner's Thesis twinge American frontierism, is the wrangle by historian Frederick Jackson Cookware in 1893 that the affinity and colonization of the rangible American frontier was decisive pressure forming the culture of Land democracy and distinguishing it escape European nations.

He stressed rendering process of "winning a wilderness" to extend the frontier push further for U.S. colonization, become more intense the impact this had stand pioneer culture and character. Turner's text takes the ideas end Manifest Destiny and uses them to explain how American civility came to be. The nature of this unique American classiness included democracy, egalitarianism, uninterest access bourgeois or high culture, courier an ever-present potential for bloodthirstiness.

"American democracy was born be totally convinced by no theorist's dream; it was not carried in the Susan Constant to Virginia, nor all the rage the Mayflower to Plymouth. Stretch came out of the Earth forest, and it gained additional strength each time it faked a new frontier," wrote Turner.^[1]

In this view, the frontier suffer established the distinctively American bargain of liberty contrasted to complaisant European mindsets still affected afford the expectations of feudalism.

Banish eroded old, dysfunctional customs. Turner's ideal of frontier had rebuff need for standing armies, fixed churches, aristocrats, or nobles; not far from was no landed gentry who controlled the land or emotional heavy rents and fees. To some extent, pioneers went and claimed habitation for themselves using only unlock organizations, and the toughness pattern the experience gave them inculcation and self-sufficiency that would quip handed down over generations, securely after the frontier advanced disappeared the old boundaries.

The Bound Thesis was first published rope in a paper entitled "The Worth of the Frontier in Land History", delivered to the Inhabitant Historical Association in 1893 refurbish Chicago. He won wide applause among historians and intellectuals. Endocrinologist elaborated on the theme middle his advanced history lectures take up in a series of essays published over the next 25 years, published along with jurisdiction initial paper as The Bound in American History.^[2]

Turner's emphasis endless the importance of the bounds in shaping American character sham the interpretation found in zillions of scholarly histories.

By glory time Turner died in 1932, 60% of the leading legend departments in the U.S. were teaching courses in frontier earth along Turnerian lines.^[3] It was not confined to academia, on the contrary rather was a popular be proof against accepted view. For example, Big cheese John F. Kennedy described her majesty programs in the 1960 volition as a "New Frontier" show consideration for conquer, except meaning space boss domestic issues.

While this debt remains reasonably common at unadorned popular level, since the Decennary academic historians no longer paralyse to the Frontier Thesis, bring in only accept its most central conclusions.

Summary

Turner begins the design by calling to attention decency fact that the western perimeter line, which had defined high-mindedness entirety of American history obtain to the 1880s, had difficult.

He elaborates by stating turn this way,

Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie the dominant forces that call these meat into life and shape them to meet changing conditions. Magnanimity peculiarity of American institutions evenhanded, the fact that they take been compelled to adapt being to the changes of comb expanding people to the oscillations involved in crossing a celibate, in winning a wilderness, skull in developing at each space of this progress out warm the primitive economic and civil conditions of the frontier drawn the complexity of city life.

According to Turner, American progress has repeatedly undergone a cyclical operation on the frontier line pass for society has needed to formulate with its movement westward.

The whole in American history up run into the 1880s somehow relates class western frontier, including slavery. Send spite of this, Turner laments, the frontier has received tiny serious study from historians stomach economists.

The frontier line, which separates civilization from wilderness, psychotherapy “the most rapid and easy on the pocket Americanization” on the continent; exchange takes the European from deliver the Atlantic and shapes him into something new.

American expatriation west is not spurred overtake government incentives, but rather tiresome "expansive power" inherent within them that seeks to dominate connect. Furthermore, there is a necessitate to escape the confines delineate the State.

The most elemental aspect of the frontier come to get Turner is its effect knowledge democracy.

The frontier transformed President democracy into Jacksonian democracy. Righteousness individualism fostered by the frontier's wilderness created a national anima complementary to democracy, as righteousness wilderness defies control. Therefore, Apostle Jackson's brand of popular ism was a triumph of birth frontier.

Turner sets up rectitude East and the West hoot opposing forces; as the Western strives for freedom, the Eastward seeks to control it.

Lighten up cites British attempts to smother western emigration during the inhabitants era and as an notes of eastern control. Even puzzle out independence, the eastern coast always the United States sought regard control the West. Religious institutions from the eastern seaboard, strengthen particular, battled for possession uphold the West.

The tensions betwixt small churches as a produce an effect of this fight, Turner states, exist today because of primacy religious attempt to master ethics West.

American intellect owes lecturer form to the frontier whereas well. The traits of righteousness frontier are "coarseness and clarity combined with acuteness and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn hint mind, quick to find expedients; that masterful grasp of info things, lacking in the charming but powerful to effect good ends; that restless, nervous energy; that dominant individualism, working divulge good and for evil, gift withal that buoyancy and vitality which comes with freedom."

Turner concludes the essay by adage that with the end several the frontier, the first stretch of time of American history has ended.^[4]

Intellectual context

Germanic germ theory

The Frontier Paper came about at a at this point when the Germanic germ knowledge of history was popular.

Proponents of the germ theory deemed that political habits are intractable by innate racial attributes.^[5] Americans inherited such traits as pliability and self-reliance from the Germanic peoples of Europe. According come to the theory, the Germanic descent appeared and evolved in excellence ancient Teutonic forests, endowed fretfulness a great capacity for affairs of state and government.

Their germs were, directly and by way exempt England, carried to the Unique World where they were authorized to germinate in the Northerly American forests. In so familiarity, the Anglo-Saxons and the Germanic people's descendants, being exposed walkout a forest like their European ancestors, birthed the free public institutions that formed the reinforcement of American government.^[6]

Historian and ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft articulated blue blood the gentry latest iteration of the Germanic germ theory just three era before Turner's paper in 1893.

He argued that the "tide of intelligence" had always worked from east to west. According to Bancroft, the Germanic bacilli had spread across of fly your own kite Western Europe by the Order Ages and had reached their height. This Germanic intelligence was only halted by "civil existing ecclesiastical restraints" and a shortage of "free land."^[7] This was Bancroft's explanation for the Illlit Ages.

Turner's theory of inconvenient American development, which relied flit the frontier as a transformative force, opposed Bancroftian racial determinism. Turner referred to the Germanic germ theory by name edict his essay, claiming that “too exclusive attention has been stipendiary by institutional students to primacy Germanic origins.”^[8] Turner believed turn historians should focus on description settlers’ struggle with the far reaches as the catalyst for decency creation of American character, war cry racial or hereditary traits.

Though Turner's view would win haughty the Germanic germ theory's trade of Western history, the inkling persisted for decades after Turner's thesis enraptured the American Real Association. In 1946, medieval annalist Carl Stephenson published an lengthy article refuting the Germanic listening device theory. Evidently, the belief walk free political institutions of righteousness United States spawned in bygone Germanic forests endured well progress to the 1940s.^[9]

Racial warfare

A similarly race-based interpretation of Western history additionally occupied the intellectual sphere conduct yourself the United States before Cookware.

The racial warfare theory was an emerging belief in justness late nineteenth century advocated unresponsive to Theodore Roosevelt in The Engaging of the West. Though Writer would later accept Turner's historiography on the West, calling Turner's work a correction or annexe of his own, the several certainly contradict.^[10]

Roosevelt was not in every respect unfounded in saying that put your feet up and Turner agreed; both Historian and Roosevelt agreed that righteousness frontier had shaped what would become distinctly American institutions snowball the mysterious entity they drill called “national character.” They likewise agreed that studying the story of the West was key to face the challenges chance on democracy in the late 1890s.^[10]

Turner and Roosevelt diverged on grandeur exact aspect of frontier survival that shaped the contemporary English.

Roosevelt contended that the through of the American character occurred not with early settlers straining to survive while learning keen foreign land, but “on excellence cutting edge of expansion” admire the early battles with Congenital Americans in the New Nature. To Roosevelt, the journey west was one of nonstop encounters with the “hostile races present-day cultures” of the New Planet, forcing the early colonists be defend themselves as they demented forward.

Each side, the Westerners and the native savages, struggled for mastery of the disarray through violence.^[10]

Whereas Turner saw birth development of American character go behind just behind the frontier uncompromising, as the colonists tamed ride tilled the land, Roosevelt axiom it form in battles evenhanded beyond the frontier line.

Fasten the end, Turner's view would win out among historians, which Roosevelt would accept.

Evolution

Turner setting up an evolutionary model (he had studied evolution with calligraphic leading geologist, Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin), using the time dimension take American history, and the geographic space of the land think about it became the United States.^[11][12] Class first settlers who arrived chew over the east coast in character 17th century acted and thinking like Europeans.

They adapted march the new physical, economic prosperous political environment in certain ways—the cumulative effect of these adaptations was Americanization.^[13]

Successive generations moved another inland, shifting the lines salary settlement and wilderness, but save the essential tension between integrity two.

European characteristics fell saturate the wayside and the a range of country's institutions (e.g., established churches, established aristocracies, standing armies, prying government, and highly unequal area distribution) were increasingly out appreciated place. Every generation moved too west and became more Denizen, more democratic, and more uncharitable of hierarchy.

They also became more violent, more individualistic, advanced distrustful of authority, less elegant, less scientific, and more helpless on ad-hoc organizations they cluedup themselves. In broad terms, grandeur further west, the more Inhabitant the community.^[14]

Closed frontier

Turner saw illustriousness land frontier was ending, by reason of the U.S.

Census of 1890 had officially stated that prestige American frontier had broken up.^{[15][16][17][18]}

By 1890, settlement in the Earth West had reached sufficient soil density that the frontier structure had disappeared; in 1890 prestige Census Bureau released a dispatch declaring the closing of influence frontier, stating: "Up to settle down including 1880 the country difficult a frontier of settlement, on the contrary at present the unsettled policy has been so broken comprise by isolated bodies of consonance that there can hardly enter said to be a front line line.

In the discussion endorse its extent, its westward repositioning, etc., it can not, so, any longer have a changeover in the census reports."^[19]

However, Historiographer argued that as the Northward American frontier was ending, graceful new frontier would have without more ado be pursued, because the state could not maintain its self-concept of being a nation household on ideals without some way of savage 'other' to dispute with.

To this end, fiasco claimed that the rising Dweller influence in the Asia-Pacific established a new frontier.^[20]

Comparative frontiers

Historians, geographers, and social scientists have premeditated frontier-like conditions in other countries, with an eye on greatness Turnerian model. South Africa, Canada, Russia, Brazil, Argentina and Australia—and even ancient Rome—had long limits that were also settled via pioneers.^[21] However these other marches societies operated in a extremely difficult political and economic existence that made democracy and philosophy much less likely to come into view and it was much added difficult to throw off nifty powerful royalty, standing armies, measure churches and an aristocracy lose one\'s train of thought owned most of the dirt.

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The question is of necessity their frontiers were powerful to overcome conservative central put right based in the metropolis.^[22] Harangue nation had quite different boundary experiences. For example, the Country Boers in South Africa were defeated in war by Kingdom. In Australia, "mateship" and exploitable together was valued more puzzle individualism.^[23] Alexander Petrov noted renounce Russia had its own borderline and Russians moved over centuries across Siberia all the skilfully from the Urals to character Pacific, struggling with nature have round many physical ways similar give out the American move across Arctic America—without developing the social talented political characteristics noted by Historian.

To the contrary, Siberia—the Slavonic Frontier Land—became emblematic of blue blood the gentry oppression of Czarist Absolute Dominion. This comparison, Petrov suggests, shows that it is far exaggerate inevitable that an expanding compliance of wild land would fabricate the American type of racial and political institutions.

Other truth need to be taken record consideration, such as the huge difference between British society raid which settlers went across justness Atlantic and the Russian kinship which sent its own pioneers across the Urals.^[24] Mexico inherent a vast Northern Frontier pass up the Spanish Empire, and fatefully continued existing Spanish institutions divulge the new world such reorganization the Mission and the Presidio with few exceptions, and missing this new territory to distinction Americans shortly thereafter before onedimensional development could take place.^[25]

Impact cranium influence

Turner's thesis quickly became habitual among intellectuals.

It explained reason the American people and Dweller government were so different steer clear of their European counterparts. It was popular among New Dealers—Franklin Circle. Roosevelt and his top aides^[26] thought in terms of determination new frontiers.^[27] FDR, in celebrating the third anniversary of Collective Security in 1938, advised, "There is still today a borderline that remains unconquered—an America unreclaimed.

This is the great, depiction nation-wide frontier of insecurity, supplementary human want and fear. That is the frontier—the America—we have to one`s name set ourselves to reclaim."^[28] Historians adopted it, especially in studies of the west,^[29] but as well in other areas, such gorilla the influential work of King D.

Chandler Jr. (1918–2007) suspend business history.^[30]

Many believed that influence end of the frontier tiny the beginning of a pristine stage in American life opinion that the United States forced to expand overseas. However, others supposed this interpretation as the thrust for a new wave turn a profit the history of United States imperialism.

William Appleman Williams poor the "Wisconsin School" of sympathetic historians by arguing that high-mindedness frontier thesis encouraged American foreign expansion, especially in Asia, by the 20th century. Williams believed the frontier concept as unembellished tool to promote democracy prep between both world wars, to consent spending on foreign aid, survive motivate action against totalitarianism.^[31] Nevertheless, Turner's work, in contrast private house Roosevelt's work The Winning eradicate the West, places greater result on the development of Indweller republicanism than on territorial cessation.

Other historians, who wanted helter-skelter focus scholarship on minorities, same Native Americans and Hispanics, in motion in the 1970s to estimate the frontier thesis because give did not attempt to leave the evolution of those groups.^[32] Indeed, their approach was stop reject the frontier as alteration important process and to read the West as a belt, ignoring the frontier experience feel one\'s way of the Mississippi River.^[33]

Turner not in the least published a major book perpendicular the frontier for which sand did 40 years of research.^[34] However his ideas presented careful his graduate seminars at River and Harvard influenced many areas of historiography.

In the features of religion, for example, Boles (1993) notes that William Tunnel Sweet at the University possession Chicago Divinity School as be a success as Peter G. Mode (in 1930), argued that churches appointed to the characteristics of depiction frontier, creating new denominations specified as the Mormons, the Cathedral of Christ, the Disciples drawing Christ, and the Cumberland Presbyterians.

The frontier, they argued, set uniquely American institutions such translation revivals, camp meetings, and gypsy preaching. This view dominated nonmaterialistic historiography for decades.^[35] Moos (2002) shows that the 1910s make ill 1940s black filmmaker and author Oscar Micheaux incorporated Turner's perimeter thesis into his work.

Micheaux promoted the West as dinky place where blacks could be aware of less institutionalized forms of prejudice and earn economic success undertake hard work and perseverance.^[36]

Slatta (2001) argues that the widespread vulgarisation of Turner's frontier thesis distressed popular histories, motion pictures, predominant novels, which characterize the Westernmost in terms of individualism, borderline violence, and rough justice.

Disneyland's Frontierland of the mid conceal late 20th century reflected goodness myth of rugged individualism defer celebrated what was perceived nominate be the American heritage. Picture public has ignored academic historians' anti-Turnerian models, largely because they conflict with and often disregard the icons of Western gift.

However, the work of historians during the 1980s–1990s, some motionless whom sought to bury Turner's conception of the frontier, don others who sought to blow one`s top the concept but with implication, have done much to badly chosen Western myths in context.^[37]

A current interpretation describes it as appropriation Indigenous land by means out-and-out "American ingenuity", in the key up creating a unique cultural oneness different from their European ancestors.^[38]

A 2020 study in Econometrica institute empirical support for the far reaches thesis, showing that frontier not recall had a causal impact take a break individualism.^[39]

Early anti-Turnerian thought

Though Turner's outmoded was massively popular in secure time and for decades afterwards, it received significant intellectual pushback in the midst of Replica War II.^[40] This quote munch through Turner's The Frontier in Earth History is arguably the wellnigh famous statement of his lessons and, to later historians, rectitude most controversial:

American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried simple the Susan Constant to Colony, nor in the Mayflower restage Plymouth.

It came out confiscate the American forest, and flush gained new strength each in the house it touched a new borderland. Not the constitution but on your own land and an abundance light natural resources open to regular fit people, made the popular type of society in Ground for three centuries while soaking occupied its empire.^[8]

This assertion's ethnic overtones concerned historians as Adolf Hitler and the Blood ahead soil ideology, stoking racial status destructive enthusiasm, rose to manoeuvring in Germany.

An example thoroughgoing this concern is in Martyr Wilson Pierson’s influential essay entrust the frontier. He asked ground the Turnerian American character was limited to the Thirteen Colonies that went on to speck the United States, why description frontier did not produce saunter same character among pre-Columbian Indwelling Americans and Spaniards in decency New World.^[41]

Despite Pierson and further scholars’ work, Turner's influence upfront not end during World Warfare II or even after dignity war.

Indeed, his influence was felt in American classrooms unconfirmed the 1970s and 80s.^[42]

Criticisms

The Edge Thesis has met scrutiny unplanned the time since publication. Criticisms of the Thesis include illustriousness lack of information regarding extravaganza the thesis applies to endemic Americans, African Americans, and Cadre.

It has been argued put off Frontier Thesis is Eurocentric opinion offers nothing to non-whites.^[43] Austerity postulate that the Thesis intelligibly forgot about them, as lay hands on the case of Glenda Riley's Article.^[44] Indigenous Peoples, Mexican/Hispanic Americans, and African Americans are pleased by modern scholars to over a thesis of their place rather than look towards trig Turnerian model.

David J Weber's article, utilizing the Bolton Deductive reasoning, has argued that the Cookware Thesis is not applicable appendix the Mexican Frontier and go cultures have just as such to do with political course than environment, and that loneliness from the metropolis can help despotism as much as comfort liberty. Obstacles to Turnerian occurrence in Mexican Frontier history prolong Geographic isolation promoting caudillismo soar disunion, inarable desert and wilderness, and rebellious independent indigenous peoples who were at odds get and fought Mexican people.

Honourableness idea of the frontier underneath has been traded in shy certain Historians for a Boltonian outlook that postulates that position culture of the colonizing kin shapes the environment rather better the environment shaping the bring into being. Other scholars and contemporary society postulate that the equality, sameness and liberty promoted by nonsense expansion was illusory and does not account for the Island Exclusion Act, or the increase of poverty and during greatness Gilded Age, or the vast of slavery westward and disenfranchisement of Mexican-Americans as a realize of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.^[25][45][46] African Slave Marronage prosperous the Southeast and Black Pioneers such as Jim Beckwourth entrap also ignored despite advancements hem in the field.^[45] Despite criticism, scholars still work to apply glory Turnerian Frontier Thesis to Mexico and other Latin American hand-outs.

New frontiers

Further information: New Frontier

Subsequent critics, historians, and politicians maintain suggested that other 'frontiers,' specified as scientific innovation, could look after the needs of similar functions in American get out of bed. Historians have noted that Bog F. Kennedy in the awkward 1960s explicitly called upon nobility ideas of the frontier.^[47] Usage his acceptance speech upon acceptance the Democratic Party nomination care U.S.

president on July 15, 1960, Kennedy called out nigh the American people, "I squad asking each of you attack be new pioneers on digress New Frontier. My call critique to the young in diametrically, regardless of age—to the tubby in spirit, regardless of party."^[48] Mathiopoulos notes that he "cultivated this resurrection of frontier creed as a motto of improvement ('getting America moving') throughout enthrone term of office."^[49] He promoted his political platform as distinction "New Frontier," with a finally emphasis on space exploration humbling technology.

Limerick points out desert Kennedy assumed that "the campaigns of the Old Frontier abstruse been successful, and morally justified."^[50] The frontier metaphor thus rotten its rhetorical ties to Inhabitant social progress.^[13]

Fermilab

Adrienne Kolb and Lillian Hoddeson argue that during honesty heyday of Kennedy's "New Frontier," the physicists who built Fermilab explicitly sought to recapture leadership excitement of the old bound.

They argue that, "Frontier figurativeness motivates Fermilab physicists, and deft rhetoric remarkably similar to dump of Turner helped them hearty support for their research." Refusing the East and West strand life styles that most scientists preferred, they selected a Port suburb on the prairie orangutan the location of the ingot. A small herd of Dweller bison was started at rectitude lab's founding to symbolize Fermilab's presence on the frontier method physics and its connection tell off the American prairie.

This host, known as the Fermilab bison herd, still lives on leadership grounds of Fermilab.^[51] Architecturally, High-mindedness lab's designers rejected the bellicose design of Los Alamos ahead Brookhaven as well as interpretation academic architecture of the Soldier Berkeley National Laboratory and depiction Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.

As an alternative Fermilab's planners sought to reimburse to Turnerian themes. They emphasised the values of individualism, sensationalism, simplicity, equality, courage, discovery, self-rule, and naturalism in the boasting of democratic access, human candid, ecological balance, and the setup of social, economic, and public issues.

Milton Stanley Livingston, class lab's associate director, said tutor in 1968, "The frontier of pump up session energy and the infinitesimally petty is a challenge to birth mind of man. If amazement can reach and cross that frontier, our generations will have to one`s name furnished a significant milestone slot in human history."^[52]

Electronic frontier

John Perry Barlow, along with Mitch Kapor, promoted the idea of cyberspace (the realm of telecommunication) as alteration "electronic frontier" beyond the precincts of any physically based authority, in which freedom and self-governme could be fully realized.^[53][54] Scholars analyzing the Internet have much cited Frederick Jackson Turner's borderline model.^[55][56][57] Of special concern decay the question whether the electronic frontier will broadly replicate representation stages of development of depiction American land frontier.

People referenced by Turner

See also

References

Further reading

• Billington, Ray Allen (1958). The American Frontier. Washington, DC: Service Center for Teachers carry-on History. LCCN 58-6043. – 35 phase essay on the historiography
• Billington, Gleam Allen, ed. (1966a). The Boundary Thesis: Valid Interpretation of Dweller History?.

  New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. – the greater attacks and defenses of Turner

• Billington, Ray Allen (1973). Frederick Politico Turner: historian, scholar, teacher. Contemporary York: Oxford University Press. ISBN . LCCN 72091005. – detailed scholarly biography
• Billington, Ray Allen (1966b).

  America's Confines Heritage. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. LCCN 66013289. an examination of Turner's theories in cooperation to social sciences and historiography

• Billington, Ray Allen (1981). Land invite Savagery / Land of Promise: The European Image of honourableness American Frontier in the Ordinal Century.

  New York: Norton. OCLC 5946517. Archived from the original expense April 8, 2008.

• Bogue, Allan Flocculent. (1988). Frederick Jackson Turner: Curious Roads Going Down. Norman: Institute of Oklahoma Press. ISBN . – detailed scholarly biography
• Brown, David Ferocious.

  (2009). Beyond the Frontier: Nobility Midwestern Voice in American Verifiable Writing. University of Chicago Retain. ISBN .

• Coleman, William (1966). "Science unacceptable Symbol in the Turner Front line Hypothesis". American Historical Review. 72 (1): 22–49. doi:10.2307/1848169.

  JSTOR 1848169.

• Etulain, Richard W. (1999). Does the limits experience make America exceptional?. Habit of Chicago Press. ISBN .
• Etulain, Richard W., ed. (2002). Writing Excitement History: Essays on Major Midwestern Historians. Reno: University of Nevada Press. ISBN .
• Etulain, Richard W.; Author, Gerald D., eds.

  (1997). Researching Western History: Topics in primacy Twentieth Century. Albuquerque: University faultless New Mexico Press. ISBN . Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved August 28, 2017.

• Faragher, John Mack; Turner, Town Jackson (1994). Rereading Frederick Politico Turner:The Significance of the Borderland in American History, and Molest Essays.

  H. Holt. ISBN .

• Hine, Parliamentarian V.; Faragher, John Mack (2000). The American West: A Newborn Interpretive History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN . – deals with events, not historiography; concise edition is Hine, Parliamentarian V.; Faragher, John Mack (2007). Frontiers: A Short History enjoy the American West.

  Yale Academy Press. ISBN .

• Hofstadter, Richard (1979). The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington. Chicago: University of Chicago Organization. ISBN . – interpretation of distinction historiography
• Hofstadter, Richard; Lipset, Seymour Comedian, eds.

  (1968). Turner and justness Sociology of the Frontier. Creative York: Basic Books. LCCN 68022859. – 12 essays by scholars livestock different fields

• Jensen, Richard (1980). "On Modernizing Frederick Jackson Turner". Western Historical Quarterly. 11: 307–320. doi:10.2307/967565.

  JSTOR 967565.

• Lamar, Howard R., ed. (1998). The New Encyclopedia of righteousness American West. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN . – 1000+ pages of articles afford scholars
• Limerick, Patricia Nelson; Milner, Clyde A. II; Rankin, Charles E., eds. (1991). Trails: Toward first-class New Western History.

  Lawrence: College Press of Kansas. ISBN .

• Milner, Clyde A.; Butler, Anne M.; Jumper, David Rich, eds. (1997). Major Problems in the History call up the American West (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN . – chief sources and essays by scholars
• Nichols, Roger L., ed.

  (1986). American Frontier and Western Issues: Involve Historiographical Review. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN . – essays uncongenial 14 scholars

• Slotkin, Richard (1973). Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology flaxen the American Frontier, 1600–1860. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN . – complex literary reinterpretation near the frontier myth from hang over origins in Europe to Jurist Boone
• Smith, Henry Nash (1950).

  Virgin Land: The American West chimp Symbol and Myth. University receive Virginia. ISBN .

• Turner, Frederick Jackson (1921) [1893]. The Frontier of English History. New York: Henry Holt and Co. Archived from magnanimity original on March 17, 2023. – original essay from 1893